Learning through the spoken word is similar to observational learning, because it allows people to learn not simply from their own experiences, but also from the experiences of others. For example, by listening to a teacher story about walking in busy streets alone, children can learn to avoid busy streets and to cross the street at crosswalks without first experiencing any positive or negative consequences.
The reasons or justifications are called the premises of the claim and the claim they purport to justify is called the conclusion. In a correct or valid deduction the premises support the conclusion in such a way that it would be impossible for the premises to be true and for the conclusion to be false. In this deduction differs sharply from induction, because induction draws a conclusion in which the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
This method can be used in mathematic in proving the answer given at the end of computation. Its drawbacks are. In every method that teachers use in schools has the applicable subject that is used. In these cases we infer or reach a conclusion based on observations. Students may be called on to study the case ahead of time and be prepared to discuss it in class, but the same may be said of any traditional lecture-based approach that incorporates questioning and answer.
The culmination of the project is normally a written and oral report summarizing the procedure used to produce the product and presenting the outcome. They should also prepare students to fill in gaps in content knowledge when a need arises, taking into account the fact that such gaps may be more likely to arise in project-based learning than in conventional lecture-based instruction. Teachers together set goals for a course, design a syllabus, prepare individual lesson plans, teach students, and evaluate the results.
They share insights, argue with one another, and perhaps even challenge students to decide which approach is better. Some teachers may have a rigid personality types or may be wedded to a single method. These lessons eventually form the moral codes that governess behavior. This method implies widening of knowledge just as concentric circles go on extending and widening. For example, an elementary knowledge is given in the introductory year, something more is taught in the next year, something more is still added in the subsequent year and so on.
However this method is applicable in the universities, colleges and other higher of learning institutions. And its drawbacks are follows. Student acts or plays a certain role in a group; this method of learning can be employed at all levels of education. In role-playing student make mistakes without feeling threatened by the situation.
The relevant problem may be solved; this method can be applicable when teaching art and music in schools. Thus we must remember, no textbook is perfect, no textbook is complete.
It is but one resource at our disposal to be used as a blueprint, a guidebook, or an outline. As teachers, we all need to make many decisions, and one of those is how you want to use the textbook, as good as they may appear on the surface. A textbook gives you all the plans and lessons you need to cover a topic in some detail. There are no surprises—everything is carefully spelled out. The series is typically based on the latest research and teaching strategies.
They're a resource for both teachers and students. The major distinction is that in a symposium each presenter is given a different work to present on. In a symposium when the question is posed it is specifically addressed to the presenter of the topic and not to the house at large.
This method helps students to experience and practice what they are learning. Encourage students to explore relationships between fictional and real worlds. Encourage students to reflect on how the drama relates to the world outside. Invite students to share reactions and observations in and out of role. Collaboration establishes a personal connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less personally biased way.
Group projects and discussions are part of this teaching method. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles, a discussion may constitute most of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end of the lesson. Tests provide student opportunity to learn. After students have written a test the teacher should mark and discuss parts of the test were much of student had not fared well then re-teach those parts.
Sometimes a teacher can set take home test where students are given an opportunity to read, probe and find answers to questions. Most effective teachers prepares test for themselves and do all the typing to avoid leaking. Telling is particularly useful as a teaching method when: ii. Introducing new topics iii. Summarizing work iv. Supplementing information furnished by students and text books.
Developing the work of the class vii. Giving illustrative talks viii. Giving inspiration talks. Introducing important incidental information. It is not possible to elicit the information for the students or make them active participants in the learning process. The presentation may not be logical if the teachers presenters have got inadequate imagination, accurate and wide knowledge.
The presentation may be boring if the presenters have not collected adequate information and facts on the topic at hand. Nevertheless this method is almost applicable in all subjects. To enhance it, every teacher should know that telling is an art. As alluded to, a teacher should have variety of facts of the story to tell the class. For example, this method requires us to start with, what we have to find out.
Then we think of further steps and possibilities which may connect the unknown with known and lead us to find out the desired result.
Analytical method can be used in the teaching and learning of mathematics and other related objects therefore can be improved by encouraging students to do some research in their learning subjects. Analytic method is logical, leaves no doubts and convinces the learner.
It is suitable method for understanding and discovering. The steps, in its procedure, are developed in a general manner. Each step has its reason and justification.
The student is throughout faced with questions and this increases his power at every step. It is a lengthy method. It is difficult to acquire efficiency and speed with this method. It may not be applicable to all the topics. It is probably used in science or in mathematics in which questions, formulae even answers at time are printed on the flash cards to help learners remember information easily. Therefore, it provides to learners the ability to recall information randomly.
However, to enhance this act, the teacher should be resourceful in one 17 sense that he must ensure that any topic taught should have flash cards containing main points of the overall topic. It helps learners build language skills. It develops the learners learning skills. It improves learners understanding of literature. Learners can have a firm basis for progressing to more complicated problem-solving skills.
Very little information can be memorized at a time. It creates and promotes laziness among pupils. Memorizing is disappointing in that it can only last for a short period of time. This title is a greatly expanded volume of the original Art and Science of Teaching, offering a framework for substantive change based on Marzano s 50 years of education research. While the previous model focused on teacher outcomes, the new version places focus on student outcomes, with strategies teachers can.
Authors: Robert J. Marzano, Jennifer S. Norford, Mike Ruyle. Part of The New Art and Science of Teaching series Shift to a new paradigm of classroom assessment that is more accurate, meaningful, and authentic. The New Art and Science of Classroom Assessment explores the inadequacies of traditional assessment methods and details how to use classroom assessment to its full.
Decision-making skills? The ability to make connections to other disciplines or to technology? Broader perspective? Keep in mind that the goals may change as you progress through the material during the quarter or semester. Explain to the students how discussions will be structured. Will the discussion involve the whole class or will students work in smaller groups?
Make clear what you expect them to do before coming to each class session: read the chapter, think about the questions at the end of the chapter, seriously try to do the first five problems, etc. Let students see you take attendance. Students who do not come to class may not be studying.
If you want students to discuss questions and concepts in small groups, explain to students how the groups will form. Do not allow a few students to dominate the discussion. Some students will naturally respond more quickly, but they must be encouraged to let others have a chance. Be sure that all students participate at an acceptable level. In extreme cases you may have to speak outside of class to an aggressive or an excessively reticent student.
Look for opportunities for you or your students to bring to class mini-demonstrations illustrating important points of the day's topic. This is a very effective way to stimulate discussion.
Be willing to adjust to the needs of your students and to take advantage of your own strengths as a teacher. Watch for signs that the students need more or less guidance.
Are the main points coming out and getting resolved? Do you need to do more summarizing or moderating?
Collaborative learning "is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together" Goodsell et al. Cooperative learning, a form of collaborative learning, is an instructional technique in which students work in groups to achieve a common goal, to which they each contribute in. The interaction itself can take different forms:. Although cooperative learning has been used effectively in elementary, middle, and high schools for a number of years, as discussed by Johnson and Johnson and Slavin , few studies have been done to demonstrate its effectiveness in the college classroom.
Nevertheless, a growing number of practitioners are assessing its effectiveness Treisman and Fullilove, ; Johnson et al. While many advocates of collaborative learning are quick to point out its advantages, they are also sensitive to its perceived problems.
Cooper , for example, points out that coverage, lack of control during class, and students who do not carry their weight in a group, need to be considered before embarking on collaborative learning.
In addition, the evaluation of group work requires careful consideration see Chapter 6. It is hard to imagine learning to do science, or learning about science, without doing laboratory or field work. Experimentation underlies all scientific knowledge and understanding.
Laboratories are wonderful settings for teaching and learning science. They provide students with opportunities to think about, discuss, and solve real problems.
Developing and teaching an effective laboratory requires as much skill, creativity, and hard work as proposing and executing a first-rate research project.
Despite the importance of experimentation in science, introductory labs fail to convey the excitement of discovery to the majority of our students. They generally give introductory science labs low marks, often describing them as boring or a waste of time.
What is wrong? It is clear that many introductory laboratory programs are suffering from neglect. Typically, students work their way through a list of step-by-step instructions, trying to reproduce expected results and wondering how to get the right answer. While this approach has little do with science, it is common practice because it is efficient. Laboratories are costly and time consuming, and predictable, "cookbook" labs allow departments to offer their lab courses to large numbers of students.
Improving undergraduate laboratory instruction has become a priority in many institutions, driven, in part, by the exciting program being developed at a wide range of institutions. Some labs encourage critical and quantitative thinking, some emphasize demonstration of principles or development of lab techniques, and some help students deepen their understanding of fundamental concepts Hake, Where possible, the lab should be coincident with the lecture or discussion.
Before you begin to develop a. Here are a number of possibilities:. Exercise curiosity and creativity by designing a procedure to test a hypothesis. Developing an effective laboratory requires appropriate space and equipment and extraordinary effort from the department's most creative teachers.
Still, those who have invested in innovative introductory laboratory programs report very encouraging results: better understanding of the material, much more positive student attitudes toward the lab, and more faculty participation in the lab Wilson, Many science departments have implemented innovative laboratory programs in their introductory courses.
We encourage you to consult the organizations and publications listed in the Appendices. Education sessions at professional society meetings are another opportunity to get good ideas for labs in your discipline. Some faculty members have given up lecturing and large. A major goal of this course is to teach students how to do science: collect initial observations, formulate testable hypotheses, perform tests, refine or overhaul the original hypothesis, devise a new test, and so on.
Each lab is two weeks long, with the equipment and animals available for the entire time. All of the materials that students could plausibly need are stored on shelves for easy and immediate access. In the first hour, we discuss the lab and possible hypotheses, and look over the materials at hand.
Each group then formulates an initial plan, obtains approval for their plan, and conducts the experiment. The most flexible labs utilize computer-controlled stimuli.
In one lab, students are asked to determine to what features of prey a toad responds. Although they begin with live crickets and worms, they are encouraged to use a computer library of "virtual" crickets and toads.
Students are given instructions for making new prey models, or modifying existing ones, to test the toad's response to different features. The library includes variations of shape, motion, color, three-dimensionality, size, and so on, plus a variety of cricket chirps and other calls.
In general, students quickly discover that virtual crickets work almost as well as real ones-better in that they provide more data since the toad never fills up! A simple statistical program on the computers helps minimize the drudgery of data analysis, enabling the students to concentrate on experimental design and results rather than tedious computations. A number of other labs in the course make use of computer-generated and modified stimuli. Labs using this strategy deal with mate recognition in crickets and fish, competitor recognition in fish, predator recognition in chicks and fish, imprinting in ducklings, color change in lizards, and hemispheric dominance in humans.
Students in two laboratory sections of a chemistry course for nonscience majors worked in groups of three on two experiments about acids, bases, and buffers. The experiments were devised using a modified "jigsaw" technique, in which each student in a group is assigned a particular part of a lesson or unit and is responsible for helping the other members of the group learn that material.
The week prior to the laboratory, students were given lists of objectives and preparatory work that were divided into three parts. Students decided how to divide the responsibility for the preparatory and laboratory tasks, but were informed that the scores from their post-laboratory exams would be averaged, and that all members of a group would receive the same grade. Two control sections of the same laboratory were conducted in a traditional manner, with students working independently.
All four groups of students were part of the same lecture class, and there were no significant differences in age, gender balance, or previous number of chemistry classes. Although the control sections had an overall GPA higher than the cooperative learning sections 2. The authors conclude that use of cooperative learning in the laboratory has a positive effect on student achievement.
Such workshop methods have been devised for teaching physics Laws, , chemistry Lisensky et al. Although this is not feasible at many institutions, some of the ideas developed in these courses translate reasonably well to courses in which a lab is associated with a large-enrollment course Thornton, in press. Laboratories can be enriched by computers that make data acquisition and analysis easier and much faster, thus allowing students to think about their results and do an improved experiment.
Computers can also be used as an element of the experiment to simulate a response, or vary a stimulus. Computers offer convenience, flexibility and safety in the laboratory, but they should not completely replace the student's interaction with the natural world.
Laboratory teaching methods vary widely, but there is certainly no substitute for an instructor circulating among the students, answering and asking questions, pointing out subtle details or possible applications, and generally guiding students' learning.
Although students work informally in pairs or groups in many labs, some faculty have formally introduced cooperative learning into their labs see sidebar. Some instructors rely on a lab handout, not to give cookbook instructions, but to pose a carefully constructed sequence of questions to help students design experiments which illustrate important concepts Hake, One advantage of the well-designed handout is that the designer more closely controls what students do in the lab Moog and Farrell, The challenge is to design it so that students must think and be creative.
In more unstructured labs the challenge is to prevent students from getting stranded and discouraged. Easy access to a faculty member or teaching assistant is essential in this type of lab.
Once you have decided on the goals for your laboratory, and are familiar with some of the innovative ideas in your field, you are ready to ask yourself the following questions:.
How have others operated their programs? Seek out colleagues in other departments or institutions who may have implemented a laboratory program similar to the one you are considering, and learn from their experiences. How much time and energy are you willing to invest? Buying new equipment and tinkering with the lab write-ups will probably improve the labs, but much more is required to implement substantial change.
Changing the way that students learn involves rethinking the way the lab is taught, writing new lab handouts, setting up a training program for teaching assistants, and perhaps designing some new experiments.
What support will you have? Solicit the interest and support of departmental colleagues and teaching assistants. Are the departmental and institutional administrations supportive of your project and willing to accept the risks? Determine how likely they are to provide the needed resources. Are you prepared to go through all of this and still get mediocre student evaluations?
All teaching assistants perform the laboratory exercises as if they were students to determine operational and analytical difficulties and to test the instructional notes and record-keeping procedures. Teachers discuss usual student questions and misconceptions and ideas for directing student learning.
Teachers review procedures for circulating among student groups to ensure that each group gets attention. Groups are visited early to help them get started. Each group is visited several other times, but at least midway through the lab to discuss preliminary results and interpretations and toward the end of the lab to review outcomes and interpretations.
Teachers review the students' notebooks or reports and then meet to discuss difficulties and misconceptions. Discussions of grading and comments that might be made are important because these procedures can influence student performance and attitudes on subsequent exercises. The various methods by which students report their lab work have different pedagogical objectives. The formal written report teaches students how to communicate their work in journal style, but students sometimes sacrifice content for appearance.
Keeping a lab notebook, which is graded, teaches the student to keep a record while doing an experiment, but it may not develop good writing and presentation skills. Oral reports motivate students to understand their work well enough to explain it to others, but this takes time and does not give students practice in writing. Oral reports can also motivate students to keep a good notebook, especially if they can consult it during their presentation.
In choosing this important aspect of the students' lab experience, consider how your students might report their work in the future.
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